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Foods of the Bible -- Wheat
 The Land of Wheat and Barley The climate of the ancient Land of Israel was a wonderful medium for growing of wild grain; cool moist air from the Mediterranean stimulated early growth and maturity, before the hot dry "hamsin"winds from Africa and Arabia could parch their delicate forms. To enjoy the dense fields of wheat and barley, our foreparents had to be at the right place at the right time -- before the ripe ears of grain shattered at the time of maturity. It seems no wonder then that settlements arose near the grainfields, to be on hand for the precious moment of harvest. Archaeological digs showed that as early as 9000 B.C. (the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age), there were villages in such places as Malhata in the Jordan Valley where residents both hunted and gathered grains and wild foods for their sustenance. According to the Bible, God sent Adam forth from the Garden of Eden "to till the ground from whence he was taken" (Gen 3:24), though it is his son Cain who is actually mentioned as the first tiller of the ground. It is probable that Cain learned that if he too carefully harvested the grains, the fields next season would be much less fruitful. If he left some seeds on the husks, results improved. And if he carefully re- planted some of the seeds he collected--his fields would give forth their bounty. Perhaps that is how farming was born. Israelite agriculture was of course primitive at its onset, but from Solomon's reign onward farming methods improved and grain was cultivated even in the rocky hills, just as it is in the winding stone grey hills of the Judean Desert today. By the time of Ezekiel, there was even enough domestically grown grain to export to foreign shores. "Judah, and the land of Israel, they were thy merchants, they traded for thy merchandise wheat of Minnith and Pannag, and honey, and oil and balm" Ezek 27:17 Wheat is mentioned together with barley 13 times in the Bible, and eight times alone. Scientists believe the wheat of the Bible to have been Triticumaestivum L. , a cultivated summer and winter wheat, though other varieties grew both wild and cultivated. "Corn" is mentioned no less than 71 times but the intention of course is not American corn ( Zea mays o L , a.k.a. Indian corn or maize) but rather the general term "grain". It is the various translations of the original Hebrew dagan , that have misled many to think it unusual that tortillas never caught on in the native diet.
The Grain and the Chaff In order for humankind to enjoy their carefully collected grain, it was necessary to "mill" the grain -separate the edible partof the wheat or barley from the rough layers of bran and outerhusk, or chaff. Wild grains were even more difficult to separate than the modern varieties we use today. In Malhata, where primitive mortars and rubbing stones were discovered, we can see how grain was prepared by rubbing it back and forth between two stones. The dexterity of the worker would mean either whole, clean wheat, or a coarse residue of groats speckled with parts of chaff and bran. In later days, wheat was harvested and brought to a threshing floor, where it was trodden on by oxen, pressed by a wooden wheelor threshed with a wooden flail, and winnowed with a fan before sifting. (For further information see Deut 25:4; 1Chr 21:23; 2Chr 2:10, 3:1; Isa 28:28. Cooking the Grain In that first era when cooking was born, grain was collected (no doubt by housewives of yore), "milled" and boiled. Primitive cooks dug a pit or depression in the earth, and filled it with overlapping stones to prevent seepage. You would then have to add water and bring it to a boil by heating other stones or pebbles in a fire, add the grain and throw in more hot stones periodically to keep the water hot. A far cry from microwaving! Archaeologists have suggested another method of grain preparation as well - pouring it onto a threshing floor that had somehow been heated by hot stones. Roasting the grain (and probably oft times burning it) would splinter the harsh outer coat and toast the inner grain rendering it edible without further cooking. (Although primitive man had no way of knowing - grain must be soaked or heated for its proteins to be digestible). But toasted grain does not a satisfying meal make, and so it was then pounded in a mortar with water or milk (if water was scarce, camel, sheep or goat milk was plentiful) and the resulting mixture kneaded to form a paste. Grain pastes, though they may sound unappetizing, were one of the staples of our early ancestors' diet, enabling them to make a solid Ësatisfying meal that could be easily transported dry and mixed with liquid as the sun set at the campsite. You can imagine what a wonderful invention pottery was, when you think that it was only then that ancient cooks could begin to mix the stews and pottages, breads and "cakes", which along with grain pastes characterized the daily diet. Wheat, barley, millet and spelt could then be cooked with chickpeas, lentils, beans and vegetables to form the unintentional complementary proteins of yesteryear. In later periods, luckier souls who did not wander had fire-blackened pits smeared with clay, usually in the kitchen area of the home, where the fire was kept burning continually and they could cook up a grain at an hour's notice. But throughout history, our ancestors probably also soaked whole or cracked wheat (bulgar) for several hours in water till it swelled, tenderized and provided a scrumptious salad with the addition of a few chopped wild plants. Millenia later, our beloved marinated bulgar salad, tabouli, is a variation on that ancient theme. The dish sent by Joseph in Egypt to Benjamin and his brothers is thought by some sources to be a kind of "frumenty"made from hulled wheat boiled in milk. It was both a satisfying and symbolic dish, since Egypt was a great grain-producing country in Jacob's time, and Joseph's brothers turned to her when famine ravaged the land of Canaan. (see Gen 42.ý) Avram (before his name was changed to Abraham) also turned to Egypt in an earlier famine ( Gen 12:10). Meir Shalev, a popular Israeli author, television personality, and self-taught Bible afficionado in Israel, claims that the "parched corn" of those days was still eaten in Israel when he was a child. Briefly boiled and dried in the sun, "kali" made an easily transportable quick meal for now or later. "And Barzilai the Gileadite of Rogelim, brought beds, and basons, and earthen vessels,and wheat and barley, and flour and parched corn, and beans and lentils and parched pulse".)
Bread of the Bible On that fateful day when God chastised Adam and Eve for eating that costly apple, he told him that "By the sweat of your brow shall ye bring forth bread", but he wasn't referring to challah. So basic and necessary, "bread" meant the whole range of food in general. The first reference to actual bread is in found in the description of the three angels' visit to Abraham, when the host hastened quickly into his tent to ask his wife to make "cakes" of "fine meal" (see Gen 18:6) Fine meal in ancient times probably meant pure wheat meal,carefully rubbed between two stones, sifted in a primitive sieve to remove coarse husks, and stored for special occasions. Many rubbing (grinding) stones of basalt have been found in excavations throughout Israel (the oldest Stone Age version found in Ein Gev), so well intact that they are still operable today. It's only recently however, that archaeologists found their first intact primitive sieve, made of gut strings and palm fiber. They found it at the Kuntillet 'Ajrud dig located some 50 kilometers off the Gaza-Eilat road (south of the Biblical Kadesh-Barnea). Bread dough was kneaded in a large bowl or kneading trough, formed into flat spheres, and baked on the sides of a convex-shaped oven, or inside on hot coals. (see Exod 12:34; 1Kgs 19:6.) This earliest form of flat bread similar to the Mexican tortilla and the Indian chapati, is still made and baked in the same way, particularly in Arab villages and in the Old City of Jerusalem, today. Tamar baked bread cakes for her brother Amnon who feigned illness, and the Bible tells us that she "poured them out before him" (see 2Sam 13:7.) "Pouring out" might have referred to emptying them out into a plate, though Biblical commentary suggests another dish, similar to the Yemenite "mallowah" of today: bread cakes fried in oil, and the oil "poured out" into the dish with them. Several kinds of bread, both leavened and unleavened, are mentioned in the Bible, among them: The "loaf" ( kikar ), "cake"( challah , tselil , levivot , oogah ), "unleavened bread" (the matza eaten at Passover), "biscuits" ( nikkudim ) and the wafer ( rakik ) . " Tselil " appears only once in the Bible - Judg 7:13, while " Nikkudim " appears in 1Kgs 14:3 and Josh 9:5,12. Bread could also serve as a sacrificial offering in the ancient Temple, but only unleavened bread made of "fine flour" -- pure wheat -- was acceptable. This subject is another example of how English translations of the Bible can be misleading. The King James Authorized Version translates this offering as a "meat offering", but what the Hebrew version is actually referring to is a "cereal" or "meal" offering. If the holy sacrifice was baked in the oven, it was made of "unleavened cakes mingled with oil" or"unleavened wafers spread with oil". It could also be "baked on a griddle" or "made in a stewing (or frying) pan." One Biblical commentator suggests a recipe: The flour is mixed with oil to create the dough, additional oil is poured on after preparation, and the bread is placed in an oiled cooking vessel. Today's doughs are also mixed with oil, placed to rise in an oiled bowl, and baked in greased baking pans, so it's not very hard to understand. Yet our breads are fluffier and lighter thanks to yeast and when desired - eggs. Leavening was prohibited in sacrificial bread offerings because it was believed that it produced a "corruption" in the dough. Perhaps this same concept is the basis for the figurative use of the word by Jesus, when he warned "Beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and the Sadducees." Paul takes the analogy even further: "Know ye not that a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump? Purge out therefore the old leaven, that ye may be as a new lump, as ye are unleavened...Therefore, let us keep the feast, not with the old leaven, neither with the leaven of malice and wickedness, but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth." 1Cor 5:6-8
The Discovery of Raised (Leavened) Bread Some archaeologists credit Egypt with the discovery of raised or leavened bread, and it's interesting to note that bread with leavening is never mentioned in the Bible before the Exodus. Raised bread might have been born when a baker noticed that wheat flour and water or milk mixed together and left unattended, fermented or "proofed" to a light dough-like consistency. Yet because wheat was a precious commodity, he/she might have made it into dough anyway, discovering to her amazement and satisfaction that it produced a lighter, tastier bread than ever before. Fermentation occurs when the starchy endosperm of wheat comes into contact with certain one-celled plants known as yeasts (genus Saccharomyces) producing carbon dioxide gas. Gas bubbles make the dough more elastic, and of course lighter and easier to chew. Putting two and two together, this ancient baker must have eventually realized that the best way to make leavened bread was to have a little "sourdough starter" on hand, mix it with additional flour and water, and let the mixture stand for several hours so that the yeast or leaven would begin active fermentation. The dough could then be formed into round cakes and mixed with oil, or rolled out thinly into wafers and brushed with oil - and baked to golden brown satisfaction. An upscale version of the ancient sourdough starter is still a popular addition to bread in America and around the world, and in Egypt sourdough fritters and breads are still produced much like they were in ancient times.
The Recipes Biblical Butter We can only surmise that the gevina and sephat bakar of the Bible most likely refer to cheeses. But the true identification of the hem'ah of the Scriptures remains a mystery. Is it butter, as modern Hebrew would have us believe, or perhaps it was a specific milk product, perhaps curdled, as Biblical translators and archeologists suggest. The answer, it seems, is that hem'ah refers to a variety of dairly products, sometimes liquid, sometimes solid. Barzilai the Gileadite of Rogelim brought "honey and hem'ah and cheese of kine" to King David's languishing army in the battlefield, probably referring to butter or curds. But when Sisera thirsted, "Milk she gave him; in a lordly bowl she brought him hem'ah" and in this case, it might have meant buttermilk. In any case, Biblical butter, also known as samneh , is a clarified butter that can be kept for long periods of time without turning rancid. Samneh was used extensively by our ancestors. Much richer tasting than regular butter, it's worth making a jar-full and using it for cooking, frying, or spreading on bread. Ingredients:
Melt the butter in a heavy saucepan over the lowest possible heat. Simmer for about 45 minutes or until a foam develops on top, and the butter turns golden brown. Skim off the foam or strain through several layers of cheesecloth. Store in an earthenware or glass jar in a cool place, or the referigerator. And try it with some of the following recipes of breads and biscuits.
Unleavened flatbreadUnleavened flatbread is still a staple among the Bedouin nomads who inhabit the Negev desert and some of the northern regions of Israel.
Heat an ungreased griddle or heaving frying pan on medium heat, until a drop of water "dances" on the surface. Cook one or two flat breads at a time, turning after the bottoms develop brown spots and bread just begins to puff up. Rotate bread gently, while pressing down lightly on the edges. Turn over and lightly brown the other side. When both sides are done, pick up the bread with a fork, and if using a gas burner, hold it for moment over a high flame. This will generally give the bread an extra "push" to puff up. Serve hot. Note: Often your first attempts might not puff up as well as your third or fourth tries. This generally means that the griddle or frying pan was not sufficiently heated to begin with. These first breads are still delicious! Also, you might want to try adding a tablespoon of butter or samneh to the dough to enrich it. Both varieties are recommended. "And he pressed upon them greatly; and they turned unto him, and entered into his house; and he made them a feast, and did bake unleavened bread, and they did eat." ( Gen 19:3) Back to top Sourdough-Leavened Loaf Bread Sourdough bread-making follows a cyclical pattern: The starter is created, more "fuel" is added to make it grow, and eventually it is born into real bread. Yet a part of it can be the foreparent of many generations of bread loaves to come. Sourdough baking may seem somewhat complicated in the beginning, but it's actually easier than conventional methods because it requires less mixing and kneading. You do however, have to develop a kind of "knack" for it, which comes only from trying again and again. For starters, you might want to mix up the sourdough starter and try the next ("Nikkudim") recipe first, or you can "cheat" and add a teaspoon of dried yeast to the starter and later to the dough. While the results are not as authentic,the irresistable sourish flavor remains, and the process is far less time consuming. To create starter:
Stir flour and water or milk together with a wooden spoon. This should be done in a glass or earthenware bowl (not metal!). Cover with a towel or cheesecloth and let stand away from drafts for about 2 or more days (depending on climate or room temperature) until the mixture bubbles up and emits a sour smell. Stir daily, and do not overproof -- if the mixture smells too sour or unpleasant it is overproofed, and you can either throw it out or save 1/3 of a cup and mix it with fresh flour and water. If "cheating" with a little powdered yeast, you can prepare the starter in the morning and have it ready by evening. (I must confess that the first time I attempted this recipe using only flour, water and honey I placed it "out of harm's way" in the living room and promptly forgot about it until the room was filled with the smell of rotten eggs! Don't forget to check it periodically). Replenishing starter: Whenever you wish to replenish the starter, add equal amounts of flour and warm water (let's say 3 cups of each) to at least 1/2 cup of the original starter mixture. Mix well with a wooden spoon, until a thick pancake-like batter is obtained. Leave out overnight to "proof," then store in a glass mason jar in the refrigerator. In time, a dark, almost black water may develop above the mixture. Not to worry - just stir it back into the starter. For the bread:
Place loaves on a greased baking sheet, cover with a damp kitchen towel or cloth (not terry), and let rise 3 hours or until dough has swelled, but not yet doubled. Rising time will depend on room temperature. Brush tops with butter, milk or oil. Sprinkle with caraway seeds. Bake in a preheated 400F oven for 10 minutes, reduce heat to 375F and bake an additional 20-30 minutes, or until lightly browned. Baking time will depend on size of loaves. To check, tap the tops - if a hollow sound is produced, the bread is done. Do not overbake, or bread will be more useful to ward off attackers then to ward off hunger. Cool at least 30 minutes before serving with samneh .
Sourdough-Leavened Parsley Nikkudim (Biscuits) This is one of my favorite recipes - an easy, fun-to-make one bowl recipe that is the basis for an almost endless variety of flavors and forms. I often take my starter out in the afternoon,and bring it to room temperature so that I can start the bread in the early evening. Sometimes I'll let it rise a mere four hours, sometimes overnight, (the rising time depends on room temperature and type of ingredients added), baking it just about 20 minutes till golden brown. Makes 15 roll-type biscuits
Form dough into snake-like roll and slice into 15 pieces. Place on a greased baking sheet and cover with a damp cloth. Let it rise (proof) in a warm place (in winter I place a book on my radiator and put the baking sheet on top) at least four hours or overnight, until almost doubled in size. Do not over-proof! Brush with water or milk after rising and sprinkle with sesame, black cumin or poppy seeds if desired. Place baking sheet in a cold oven and heat to 300F. Bake 15 minutes, or until rolls are golden brown and make a hollow sound when tapped on the bottom. Serve warm or at room temperature with butter or cheese, if desired. Variations: Use fresh dill or coriander instead of parsley, or dried basil or cumin. Use apple juice concentrate instead of honey. Substitute sour cream for yogurt. Try part ground oatmeal or some other type of flour like rye, barley or corn meal (corn meal is not Biblical however!) instead of up to 1/2 cup of the whole wheat flour.
Earthy Unyeasted Bread A truly hearty "earth bread"; simple, good exercise for the teeth, more full bodied than sourdough bread, and with the addition of caraway seeds for aroma. Unyeasted bread, also a contender for the forerunner of matza, is made simply from flour and water. The ingredients are all mixed together, the bread is VERY well kneaded, and the dough is left to rise or ferment with the micro-organisms in the air over a period of 12-36 hours. The process is time consuming to say the least, but for most of the women of the ancient world, it was part of the standard day to day activity. If they left enough dough to ferment each day, the cycle would lead to a constant supply. Could it be that the matza or unleavened bread of Passover was made of this dough left to ferment, but never given a chance to rise? Even if you've never made bread before, it's worth trying this recipe (at least once) for the practice, for the enjoyment, and for the wonder you'll have at tasting this actually very simple and delicious bread. Just ask a friend to show you how to knead correctly, because that's the secret of this loaf. Yield: 1 large round bread
In a large bowl, mix together the water, salt and olive or sesame oil. With a wooden spoon slowly stir in about 2 1/2 cups of flour and the caraway seeds, mixing and beating for about 5 minutes. Mix in additional flour, until the mixture is too thick to stir. Flour a board or kneading area. Transfer the dough and any remnants left in the bowl, to the board. Knead the dough, adding additional flour as necessary, until it is smooth and the consistency of your ear lobe (yes!). Unyeasted dough requires a good deal of patient kneading, about 15-20 minutes to start. Work in a rhythm, turning the dough clockwise to assure uniform kneading. Altogether, you should have about 250-300 kneads. Oil hands, and form the dough into a ball. Oil the dough, and place in a large bowl. Cover with a cloth and a cover, and place away from drafts for 30-36 hours, or until the dough has puffed and risen. Allow longer time if no fermentation seems to be taking place. Remove the risen dough from the bowl, knead lightly and form into ping-pong sized balls. Place the balls in a large well-greased oiled round baking pan, snuggling them up, one against the other. Do not cram -- use an additional pan, or form an additional small loaf if necessary. Allow space for rising. Cover round bread loaf with a wet cloth and set in a warm place for 3-6 hours or until the dough rises about half again. Brush with milk or oil. Place the bread in a cold oven, and heat to 300F. Bake bread about 45 minutes to 1 hour, or until it sounds hollow when tapped on both top and bottom. Serve warm and thinly sliced, or let your guests tear off the rolls as individual servings.
Unleavened Wafers Mingled with Oil A quick and simple recipe that requires no yeast, this variety of fried bread makes a tasty accompaniment to any grain dish and salad. Makes 14-18 breads
Mix flour and salt in a bowl, and add samneh and warm water gradually, stirring to form a stiff dough. Knead for a few minutes and let rest 10 minutes. Divide the dough into 14-18 balls, and roll out thinly, one at a time, on a floured board. Roll out all the balls, keeping them separate from one another. Using a deep skillet, heat the oil and fry each bread separately on medium heat. Fry until golden brown on both sides. Drain well and keep in an oven heated to low heat, util all the breads are done. Serve hot.
Wild Wheat Salad
Bulgar or bourgoul, is a cracked wheat product still very much in use in Israel today. Generally available in both fine or more coarsely ground varieties, the coarser ground is preferable for this recipe, though either type may be used. Serves 4-6
Rinse and soak the bulgar in the water till absorbed. Drain and press off excess water. Mix with rest of ingredients and serve immediately, or chill, covered, till serving time. Note: Using hot water will cut down on soaking time.
Cracked Wheat and Chickpea Salad Similar to the Lebanese "tabouli" , this salad combines grains and beans to form a protein quality like that of meat. The addition of greens adds chlorophyll and B vitamins, making this a wonderfully healthy dish. Serves 4
Rinse bulgar well and mix with water. Let stand till water is absorbed. Drain and press out excess moisture. Mix with remaining ingredients, cover and chill thoroughly before serving.
Bulgar Rolls with Raisins and Onions Cracked wheat-based Bulgar Rolls could possibly be the precursor of the modern day Kubbeh, popular in Syrian homes throughout the world. While most kubbeh is made by working the bulgar (usually with meat) until it naturally adheres to itself, this vegetarian version is particularly easy and tasty both as hors d'oevres and main dish material. Yield: 24 medium-sized rolls
Place the bulgar, water, olive oil and salt in a pot. Bring to a boil, and skim off any foam or particles that float to the top. Lower heat to medium and cook until water is absorbed, about 5-8 minutes. Stir occasionally, to prevent bulgar from sticking to the bottom of the pot. Remove from heat and stir in 1 teaspoon cumin. Let cool until bulgar can be easily handled. Add the flour and knead with the hands, pressing against the sides of the pot, until the mixture easily sticks together and is firm enough to form rolls. Set aside. Heat enough olive oil to cover the bottom of a small skillet. Fry the onions till golden brown. Add the raisins and cook an additional minute, stirring constantly. Cool. Stir in the other teaspoon of cumin and the ground cardamom, if desired. Mix well. Form the bulgar mixture into 24 elongated rolls, wetting your hands in cold water occasionally to aid the process. Holding one roll in the palm of the hand, and using the index finger of the other hand, make an indentation along the length of the roll, leaving space at the top and bottom. Place a scant teaspoon of the onion-raisin filling along the indentation, and seal by pinching the sides together. Roll between the palms of the hands so that the roll is again uniform. Patties or burgers may also be made if desired: Make a ball, form a whole in the center with your index finger, add filling, close up and flatten. Place on a greased baking sheet and bake in a preheated 350F oven 35-45 minutes, till golden brown, turning once. Or if you prefer, fry in olive or sesame oil till browned on both sides.
Biblical Dumplings
Perhaps it was the hunting season, and the young shepherd boy was out with his flocks in the hills. His provisions were few -- flour, oil, salt and water from a nearby oasis. Chancing upon a quail's nest, he made off with its precious contents. And back at the oasis, he may have come up with this original dish. Serves the shepherd and three of his comrades:
Fill a large pot or saucepan with water, bring to a boil and add 1 teaspoon salt. In a bowl, mix flour, quail or hen's egg, remaining salt, and enough water to make a batter slightly thicker than one for pancakes. Drop a few tablespoons of batter at a time into the boiling water, and boil for 10 minutes. Remove with a slotted spoon and transfer to a bowl. To serve: Add to porridge, or fry in samneh/butter till brown and crispy.
Whole Wheat Sweet Porridge
Thick, sweet and satisfying, this whole wheat porridge was easy for our ancestors to whip up whether at home or on the road. It makes a delicious and nourishing breakfast, a comforting snack on a winter's night, or even a dessert at the end of a light meal. Serves 4-6 (breakfast or dessert)
Rinse the whole wheat and bring to a boil with the water. Cover pot, lower heat to a simmer and cook 1/2 hour. Add the milk, raisins and nuts. Continue to cook till the wheat is crunchy-tender, about 30 minutes, depending on size and age of wheat. Prepare little dishes of cinnamon and honey for setting on the table. Pour the wheat porridge into a casserole dish, or spoon it into separate bowls, and serve. Let guests add their own ground cinnamon and honey to taste.
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Articles The Land of Wheat and Barley The Grain and the Chaff Cooking the Grain Breads of the Bible The Discovery of Raised (Leavened) Bread Recipes Samneh Biblical Butter Unleavened Flatbread Sourdough-Leavened Loaf Bread Sourdough-Leavened Parsley Nikkudim (Biscuits) Earthy Unyeasted Bread Fried Wafers Wild Wheat Salad Cracked Wheat and Chickpea Salad Biblical Bulgar Rolls with Raisins and Onions Original Dumplings Whole Wheat Sweet Porridge The Books Ariga Visitors have bought at the Ariga Cooking Bookstore include: A Biblical Feast, Foods from the Holy Land A Cook's Tour: Global Adventures in Extreme Cuisines Bible Food Fun: A Step-By-Step Cookbook Cloudy With a Chance of Meatballs The What Would Jesus Eat Cookbook
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